Clinical Information

Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), also known as Lynch syndrome, is an autosomal dominant hereditary cancer syndrome associated with germline variants in the mismatch repair genes: MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2.

Lynch syndrome is predominantly characterized by significantly increased risks for colorectal and endometrial cancer. The lifetime risk for colorectal cancer is highly variable and dependent on the gene involved. The risk for colorectal cancer associated MLH1 and MSH2 variants (approximately 50%-80%) is generally higher than the risks associated with variants in the other Lynch syndrome-related genes and the lifetime risk for endometrial cancer (approximately 25%-60%) is also highly variable. Other malignancies within the tumor spectrum include sebaceous neoplasms, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, hepatobiliary and urinary tract carcinomas, and small bowel cancer. The lifetime risks for these cancers are less than 15%. Of the 4 mismatch repair genes, variants within the PMS2 gene confer the lowest risk for any of the tumors within the Lynch syndrome spectrum.

Several clinical variants of Lynch syndrome have been defined. These include Turcot syndrome, Muir-Torre syndrome, and homozygous mismatch repair alterations (also called constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome). Turcot syndrome and Muir-Torre syndrome are associated with increased risks for cancers within the tumor spectrum described but also include brain and central nervous system malignancies and sebaceous carcinomas, respectively. Homozygous or compound heterozygous mismatch repair alterations, characterized by the presence of biallelic deleterious alterations within a mismatch repair gene, are associated with a different clinical phenotype defined by hematologic and brain cancers, cafe au lait macules, and childhood colon or small bowel cancer.

There are several strategies for evaluating individuals whose personal or family history of cancer is suggestive of Lynch syndrome. Testing tumors from individuals at risk for Lynch syndrome for microsatellite instability (MSI) indicates the presence or absence of defective DNA mismatch repair phenotype within the tumor but does not suggest in which gene the abnormality rests. Tumors from individuals affected by Lynch syndrome usually demonstrate an MSI-H phenotype (MSI >30% of microsatellites examined). The MSI-H phenotype can also be seen in individuals whose tumors have somatic MLH1 promoter hypermethylation. Tumors from individuals that show the MSS/MSI-L phenotype (MSI at <30% of microsatellites examined), are not likely to have Lynch syndrome or somatic hypermethylation of MLH1. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a complementary testing strategy to MSI testing. In addition to identifying tumors with defective DNA mismatch repair, IHC analysis is helpful for identifying the gene responsible for the defective DNA mismatch repair within the tumor, because the majority of MSI-H tumors show a loss of expression of at least 1 of the 4 mismatch repair genes described above.

Testing is typically first performed on the tumor of an affected individual and in the context of other risk factors, such as young age at diagnosis or a strong family history of Lynch syndrome-related cancers. If defective DNA mismatch repair is identified within the tumor, variant analysis of the associated gene can be performed to identify the causative germline variant and allow for predictive testing of at-risk individuals.

Of note, MSI-H phenotypes and loss of protein expression by IHC have also been demonstrated in various sporadic cancers, including those of the colon and endometrium. Absence of MLH1 and PMS2 protein expression within a tumor, for instance, is most often associated with a somatic alteration in individuals with an older age of onset of cancer than typical Lynch syndrome families. Therefore, an MSI-H phenotype or loss of protein expression by IHC within a tumor does not distinguish between somatic and germline variants. Genetic testing of the gene indicated by IHC analysis can help to distinguish between these 2 possibilities. In addition, when absence of MLH1/PMS2 is observed, BRMLH / MLH1 Hypermethylation and BRAF Mutation Analyses, Tumor or ML1HM / MLH1 Hypermethylation Analysis, Tumor may also help to distinguish between a sporadic and germline etiology.

It should be noted that this Lynch syndrome screen is not a genetic test, but rather stratifies the risk of having an inherited cancer predisposition syndrome and identifies patients who might benefit from subsequent genetic testing.